When was Daniel written?

Most scholars date the final form of the book to approximately 165 BCE, during the Maccabean Revolt. While the stories are set in the 6th century BCE, the language and historical references point to a 2nd-century composition.

The book is pseudonymous, meaning it was written by an anonymous author using the name of the legendary figure Daniel. Critical scholarship rejects the traditional attribution to a 6th-century prophet in favor of a 2nd-century BCE Jewish scribe.

Is it historically reliable?

The book is not considered a reliable historical record of the 6th century BCE due to anachronisms and inaccuracies regarding Babylonian and Persian history. It is viewed instead as a theological reflection on the events of the 2nd century BCE.

Why does the book switch between Aramaic and Hebrew?

The text alternates between Hebrew (chapters 1 and 8-12) and Aramaic (chapters 2-7), a feature that likely reflects the bilingual nature of the Jewish diaspora and the specific audiences for different sections. Scholars debate whether this indicates multiple sources or a deliberate literary structure.

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Christianity

Daniel

Final form c. 165 BCE; traditions may be older.12 chapters

About this book

Faithfulness in exile and prophecies of future kingdoms.

Daniel and his friends remain faithful to God in Babylon despite persecution. The book contains visions of future empires and the ultimate triumph of God's kingdom.

Read this if — You want to see how to stand firm in faith during cultural pressure.

Background & dating

The Book of Daniel is a composite work that blends court tales with apocalyptic visions to address a community in crisis. The first half consists of stories about Daniel and his friends navigating foreign courts in Babylon and Persia, where they maintain their religious identity despite pressure to assimilate. These narratives, likely drawing on older folklore, establish a pattern of divine deliverance that reassures readers that faithfulness to God yields protection even under imperial oppression.

The second half shifts to a series of cryptic visions detailing the rise and fall of empires, culminating in the establishment of God's eternal kingdom. Written during the reign of Antiochus IV, these visions use symbolic language to critique current events while predicting the imminent end of the persecutor's rule. The text reframes history as a divinely orchestrated drama, assuring the audience that their suffering is temporary and that justice will ultimately prevail.

Scholars note that the book's dual structure serves a specific theological purpose: the court tales model individual resistance, while the apocalyptic sections provide a cosmic framework for understanding collective suffering. By projecting these messages into the distant past, the anonymous author lends them the weight of ancient prophecy. This literary strategy allowed the text to circulate as a source of encouragement during the Maccabean Revolt, offering a vision of hope that transcended immediate political realities.

Ultimately, Daniel stands as a pivotal text in the development of Jewish and Christian eschatology. Its influence extends far beyond its original historical context, shaping later traditions regarding the end times, the resurrection of the dead, and the nature of divine sovereignty. The book remains a testament to the resilience of religious identity in the face of cultural erasure and political tyranny.

Dating

Scholarly consensus dates the final composition of the Book of Daniel to approximately 165 BCE, during the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes. While the narrative is set in the 6th century BCE Babylonian exile, linguistic evidence and historical allusions indicate the text was written centuries later. Some scholars suggest minor earlier traditions or sources may underlie the final redaction, but the book as a whole is a product of the 2nd century BCE.

Authorship

Traditional Jewish and Christian attribution assigns the book to Daniel, a 6th-century BCE Jewish exile, but critical scholarship identifies the work as pseudonymous. The text is widely regarded as the product of an anonymous author or redactor writing under the name of a legendary sage to address contemporary persecution. This use of a famous figure from the past to lend authority to a new revelation is a standard feature of apocalyptic literature.

Setting

The text reflects the crisis of the Seleucid persecution of Judaism in the mid-2nd century BCE, specifically the desecration of the Temple and the ban on Jewish practices. Although the stories are set in the courts of Babylon and Persia, the political tensions and theological concerns mirror the struggles of the Jewish community under Antiochus IV. The book functions as resistance literature, offering hope and a call for fidelity during a time of existential threat.

Genre

Apocalyptic prophecy and court tale.

Frequently asked

When was Daniel written?: Most scholars date the final form of the book to approximately 165 BCE, during the Maccabean Revolt. While the stories are set in the 6th century BCE, the language and historical references point to a 2nd-century composition.
Who wrote Daniel?: The book is pseudonymous, meaning it was written by an anonymous author using the name of the legendary figure Daniel. Critical scholarship rejects the traditional attribution to a 6th-century prophet in favor of a 2nd-century BCE Jewish scribe.
Is it historically reliable?: The book is not considered a reliable historical record of the 6th century BCE due to anachronisms and inaccuracies regarding Babylonian and Persian history. It is viewed instead as a theological reflection on the events of the 2nd century BCE.
Why does the book switch between Aramaic and Hebrew?: The text alternates between Hebrew (chapters 1 and 8-12) and Aramaic (chapters 2-7), a feature that likely reflects the bilingual nature of the Jewish diaspora and the specific audiences for different sections. Scholars debate whether this indicates multiple sources or a deliberate literary structure.

Chapters

with commentary:MH